Decreases the Likelihood of a Behavior Happening Again
Learning
Reinforcement and Punishment
Learning Objectives
- Explain the difference betwixt reinforcement and penalization (including positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment)
- Define shaping
- Differentiate between master and secondary reinforcers
In discussing operant workout, we employ several everyday words—positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment—in a specialized manner. In operant conditioning, positive and negative do not mean good and bad. Instead, positive means yous are adding something, and negative ways yous are taking something abroad. means you are increasing a behavior, and penalty means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement tin be positive or negative, and penalization can as well exist positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative) increase the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishers (positive or negative) decrease the likelihood of a behavioral response. Now let'south combine these iv terms: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment (Table 1).
| Reinforcement | Punishment | |
| Positive | Something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior. | Something is added to decrease the likelihood of a beliefs. |
| Negative | Something is removed to increase the likelihood of a beliefs. | Something is removed to subtract the likelihood of a behavior. |
Reinforcement
The most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior is with positive reinforcement. In , a desirable stimulus is added to increment a behavior.
For example, you tell your five-year-old son, Jerome, that if he cleans his room, he will get a toy. Jerome quickly cleans his room because he wants a new art set. Let's interruption for a moment. Some people might say, "Why should I reward my child for doing what is expected?" But in fact we are constantly and consistently rewarded in our lives. Our paychecks are rewards, as are high grades and credence into our preferred school. Being praised for doing a good job and for passing a driver's exam is as well a reward. Positive reinforcement equally a learning tool is extremely effective. It has been found that one of the most effective means to increase achievement in school districts with below-average reading scores was to pay the children to read. Specifically, second-grade students in Dallas were paid $2 each time they read a book and passed a short quiz about the volume. The outcome was a meaning increase in reading comprehension (Fryer, 2010). What practice y'all recall almost this plan? If Skinner were live today, he would probably remember this was a great thought. He was a strong proponent of using operant workout principles to influence students' beliefs at schoolhouse. In fact, in add-on to the Skinner box, he also invented what he called a teaching car that was designed to reward small-scale steps in learning (Skinner, 1961)—an early forerunner of reckoner-assisted learning. His didactics machine tested students' noesis as they worked through various school subjects. If students answered questions correctly, they received firsthand positive reinforcement and could go on; if they answered incorrectly, they did not receive any reinforcement. The idea was that students would spend additional time studying the material to increase their run a risk of being reinforced the next time (Skinner, 1961).
In negative reinforcement, an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. For case, car manufacturers apply the principles of negative reinforcement in their seatbelt systems, which go "beep, beep, beep" until you spike your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired beliefs, increasing the likelihood that you lot will buckle up in the future. Negative reinforcement is too used frequently in horse preparation. Riders apply pressure—by pulling the reins or squeezing their legs—and then remove the pressure when the horse performs the desired behavior, such as turning or speeding up. The pressure is the negative stimulus that the horse wants to remove.
Link to Learning
Sentinel this clip from The Big Bang Theory to see Sheldon Cooper explain the commonly dislocated terms of negative reinforcement and penalisation.
Penalization
Many people confuse negative reinforcement with penalty in operant workout, just they are two very different mechanisms. Think that reinforcement, even when it is negative, ever increases a behavior. In contrast, always decreases a behavior. In positive punishment, y'all add together an undesirable stimulus to subtract a behavior. An example of is scolding a student to get the educatee to stop texting in form. In this case, a stimulus (the reprimand) is added in order to decrease the beliefs (texting in grade). In , yous remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For case, when a child misbehaves, a parent can have abroad a favorite toy. In this example, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.
Penalization, especially when information technology is immediate, is ane way to decrease undesirable behavior. For example, imagine your four year-old son, Brandon, hit his younger brother. You have Brandon write 50 times "I will non hit my blood brother" (positive punishment). Chances are he won't repeat this beliefs. While strategies like this are common today, in the past children were ofttimes subject to concrete penalization, such every bit spanking. It's important to exist enlightened of some of the drawbacks in using physical punishment on children. Outset, punishment may teach fear. Brandon may become fearful of the hitting, just he likewise may become fearful of the person who delivered the penalisation—you lot, his parent. Similarly, children who are punished by teachers may come to fear the instructor and try to avoid schoolhouse (Gershoff et al., 2010). Consequently, about schools in the The states take banned corporal punishment. 2d, punishment may cause children to become more than ambitious and prone to hating behavior and delinquency (Gershoff, 2002). They come across their parents resort to spanking when they become angry and frustrated, and then, in plow, they may act out this aforementioned behavior when they become angry and frustrated. For instance, because you lot spank Margot when you are angry with her for her misbehavior, she might starting time striking her friends when they won't share their toys.
While positive punishment tin can be effective in some cases, Skinner suggested that the use of penalty should be weighed against the possible negative effects. Today's psychologists and parenting experts favor reinforcement over punishment—they recommend that you take hold of your child doing something adept and reward her for it.
Watch Information technology
Brand certain yous understand the stardom between negative reinforcement and punishment in the post-obit video:
You can view the transcript for "Learning: Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment" here (opens in new window).
Still confused? Sentry the following short clip for another example and explanation of positive and negative reinforcement as well equally positive and negative penalty.
You tin view the transcript for "Operant Conditioning" here (opens in new window).
Shaping
In his operant conditioning experiments, Skinner often used an approach called shaping. Instead of rewarding only the target behavior, in , nosotros reward successive approximations of a target behavior. Why is shaping needed? Retrieve that in order for reinforcement to piece of work, the organism must first display the behavior. Shaping is needed considering it is extremely unlikely that an organism will brandish anything but the simplest of behaviors spontaneously. In shaping, behaviors are broken down into many modest, achievable steps. The specific steps used in the process are the following: Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired beliefs. Yous volition no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response. Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior.
Shaping is often used in teaching a complex beliefs or chain of behaviors. Skinner used shaping to teach pigeons not only such relatively simple behaviors as pecking a disk in a Skinner box, but too many unusual and entertaining behaviors, such every bit turning in circles, walking in effigy eights, and even playing ping pong; the technique is commonly used by animal trainers today. An important function of shaping is stimulus bigotry. Recall Pavlov'southward dogs—he trained them to answer to the tone of a bell, and not to similar tones or sounds. This discrimination is likewise important in operant conditioning and in shaping behavior.
Spotter Information technology
Information technology's piece of cake to run into how shaping is effective in education behaviors to animals, but how does shaping work with humans? Let's consider parents whose goal is to take their child learn to clean his room. They utilize shaping to help him master steps toward the goal. Instead of performing the entire task, they set up these steps and reinforce each footstep. First, he cleans up 1 toy. Second, he cleans up 5 toys. Third, he chooses whether to choice upward ten toys or put his books and apparel abroad. 4th, he cleans up everything except two toys. Finally, he cleans his entire room.
Main and Secondary Reinforcers
Rewards such as stickers, praise, money, toys, and more can be used to reinforce learning. Let's go back to Skinner'southward rats once again. How did the rats acquire to press the lever in the Skinner box? They were rewarded with food each time they pressed the lever. For animals, food would exist an obvious reinforcer.
What would be a good reinforce for humans? For your daughter Sydney, it was the hope of a toy if she cleaned her room. How near Joaquin, the soccer actor? If you gave Joaquin a piece of candy every time he made a goal, y'all would be using a primary reinforcer. Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned. H2o, nutrient, sleep, shelter, sex, and bear on, amidst others, are . Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer. Organisms exercise non lose their drive for these things. For most people, jumping in a cool lake on a very hot day would be reinforcing and the cool lake would be innately reinforcing—the water would cool the person off (a physical need), as well as provide pleasance.
A has no inherent value and but has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforcer, equally when you called out "Smashing shot!" every time Joaquin made a goal. Another case, money, is only worth something when you lot can use it to purchase other things—either things that satisfy basic needs (food, h2o, shelter—all principal reinforcers) or other secondary reinforcers. If you were on a remote island in the center of the Pacific Bounding main and you had stacks of money, the money would non be useful if you could not spend it. What about the stickers on the beliefs chart? They besides are secondary reinforcers.
Sometimes, instead of stickers on a sticker chart, a token is used. Tokens, which are as well secondary reinforcers, can then be traded in for rewards and prizes. Entire beliefs management systems, known as token economies, are congenital around the use of these kinds of token reinforcers. Token economies have been plant to be very constructive at modifying behavior in a diverseness of settings such equally schools, prisons, and mental hospitals. For example, a written report by Cangi and Daly (2013) plant that use of a token economy increased appropriate social behaviors and reduced inappropriate behaviors in a group of autistic school children. Autistic children tend to exhibit confusing behaviors such equally pinching and hitting. When the children in the report exhibited appropriate beliefs (not hitting or pinching), they received a "quiet hands" token. When they hit or pinched, they lost a token. The children could then exchange specified amounts of tokens for minutes of playtime.
Everyday Connectedness: Behavior Modification in Children
Parents and teachers often employ behavior modification to modify a kid'south behavior. Behavior modification uses the principles of operant workout to accomplish beliefs alter so that undesirable behaviors are switched for more than socially acceptable ones. Some teachers and parents create a sticker chart, in which several behaviors are listed (Figure one). Sticker charts are a form of token economies, as described in the text. Each fourth dimension children perform the behavior, they become a sticker, and subsequently a certain number of stickers, they get a prize, or reinforcer. The goal is to increase acceptable behaviors and decrease misbehavior. Remember, it is best to reinforce desired behaviors, rather than to use punishment. In the classroom, the teacher can reinforce a wide range of behaviors, from students raising their hands, to walking quietly in the hall, to turning in their homework. At dwelling house, parents might create a behavior nautical chart that rewards children for things such as putting away toys, brushing their teeth, and helping with dinner. In order for behavior modification to exist effective, the reinforcement needs to be connected with the behavior; the reinforcement must matter to the child and be done consistently.
Time-out is some other popular technique used in behavior modification with children. It operates on the principle of negative penalization. When a kid demonstrates an undesirable behavior, she is removed from the desirable activity at hand (Figure two). For example, say that Sophia and her brother Mario are playing with building blocks. Sophia throws some blocks at her blood brother, and then you give her a alarm that she will go to fourth dimension-out if she does it again. A few minutes later on, she throws more blocks at Mario. Y'all remove Sophia from the room for a few minutes. When she comes back, she doesn't throw blocks.
There are several important points that you should know if you plan to implement fourth dimension-out every bit a beliefs modification technique. Commencement, make certain the kid is being removed from a desirable action and placed in a less desirable location. If the activity is something undesirable for the kid, this technique will backfire because it is more than enjoyable for the child to exist removed from the activity. Second, the length of the time-out is important. The general dominion of thumb is ane minute for each year of the child'due south age. Sophia is five; therefore, she sits in a fourth dimension-out for five minutes. Setting a timer helps children know how long they have to sit in time-out. Finally, as a caregiver, keep several guidelines in mind over the course of a fourth dimension-out: remain calm when directing your child to fourth dimension-out; ignore your child during time-out (because caregiver attending may reinforce misbehavior); and give the child a hug or a kind word when time-out is over.
Think It Over
- Explain the difference betwixt negative reinforcement and punishment, and provide several examples of each based on your ain experiences.
- Think of a behavior that you lot have that you would like to modify. How could you lot use behavior modification, specifically positive reinforcement, to modify your behavior? What is your positive reinforcer?
Licenses and Attributions (Click to expand)
CC licensed content, Original
- Modification and adaptation, addition of Big Bang Learning example. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
- Operant conditioning interactive. Authored by: Jessica Traylor for Lumen Learning. Provided past: Lumen Learning. License: CC Past: Attribution
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Operant Conditioning. Authored by: OpenStax Higher. Located at: https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/half dozen-3-operant-conditioning. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for complimentary at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction
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- BF Skinner Foundation – Dove Ping Pong Clip. Provided by: bfskinnerfoundation. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/scout?v=vGazyH6fQQ4. License: Other. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
- Learning: Negative Reinforcement vs. Penalisation. Authored by: Featherbed Publishing. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/picket?v=imkbuKomPXI. License: Other. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
- Operant Conditioning. Authored past: Dr. Mindy Rutherford. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/scout?v=LSHJbIJK9TI. License: Other. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
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Source: https://pressbooks.online.ucf.edu/lumenpsychology/chapter/operant-conditioning/
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